The Building Conservation Directory 2022

84 T H E B U I L D I N G CO N S E R VAT I O N D I R E C TO R Y 2 0 2 2 C AT H E D R A L COMMU N I C AT I ON S The late Stuart and early Georgian periods, particularly between 1670 and 1760, was a high point in the skilful use of brickwork that was aided by big improvements in the manufacture of bricks, the skills of the craftsmen and by a great flowering of architecture under influential designers such as Hugh May (1621–84), Roger Pratt (1620–84), Robert Hooke (1635–1703) and Christopher Wren (1632–1723). Their influence was felt until well into the early 19th century. ARCHITECTURAL STYLES A dramatic change in architectural style is evident from the late Gothic and vernacular styles of the Tudor, Elizabethan, Jacobean and early Stuart periods due to the increasing influence of Italy. Until the mid-17th century that influence was largely via Northern Europe, and particularly the Dutch styles. This was made popular by the proliferation of builders’ ‘pattern books’ often used by master builders as artisan architects. This contributed to a style of architecture that lasted up to the Commonwealth (1649–60) known as Artisan Mannerist because of the license the designs take with the rigid rules of Classical architecture. ‘The Dutch house’, as Kew Palace (1631) in Kew Gardens, London was originally named, is an important influential example of this style. From the viewpoint of brickwork technology, the Dutch House is worthy of further comment because it is the earliest known example in England of a whole facade set out and built using correct Flemish Bond – that is to say, one based on alternate stretchers and headers in the same course. It is also a good example of the transition of Gothic-styled enrichments of Tudor and Jacobean buildings to Classical details. These were created by brickmasons skilfully using the brick axe to cut-mould soft ‘rubbing bricks’ after they had been fired, in an early form of gauged brickwork introduced from the Netherlands. The architect Inigo Jones (1573–1652) looked to Italy to find the source of the Renaissance Classical tradition and to discover important innovations in materials and skills. He spent time there and was the first to become truly conversant with the architectural rules laid down by Andrea Palladio (1508–1580) in his four-volume work, ‘I quattro libri dell’architecttura’ (1570). These gave emphasis to the precise use of Classical ratio and proportion in all aspects of design and detailing. Inigo Jones’s discovery led to the development of the ‘Palladian’ style, and its widespread adoption in Britain and Ireland. From this point onwards responsibility for the design and control of a new building started to shift from the traditional master builder to the architect, a non-practitioner. Some leading architects, like Hugh May, Roger Pratt, Robert Hooke and Christopher Wren would listen to their craft masters in matters of design detail, materials and application, but by the middle of the 18th century this practice had changed and increasingly architects insisted on master craftsmen interpreting working drawings faithfully with little, if any, room for individual license. This led to buildings being rather style-bound and lacking in the unique vitality created by the masters’ input of former years. THE GEORGIAN PERIOD 1714–1830 From a technical perspective, the late 17th and early 18th centuries were another high point in both brickmaking and their use. Their manufacture was much improved, with blended clay, better moulding and more even firing which led to greater consistency in shape and size. In hugely influential London the colours of bricks changed in popularity: red, purple or grey bricks were fashionable from the late 17th century until 1730, when brownish or pinkish grey stocks replaced the red, or ‘hot’ colours. These were followed in the mid-18th century by grey stocks, and by 1800 the production of yellow marl or malm London stocks, which were closer to the stone colour desired for a Palladian classical facade. Face brickwork was generally of a very high standard, laid mainly Flemish bond, although header bond was also popular in the early 18th century. Improvements in the materials and production of mortars also occurred throughout this period. The use of washed and graded aggregates began to appear during the late 18th century, and colouring was often added to pointing mortars. Parker’s ‘Roman’ cement was patented in 1796, and other branded natural cements and stronger classes of hydraulic limes soon followed. An early form of Portland cement, a blend of limestone and clay, fired and ground to make an artificial cement binder, appeared in 1824. These all set quicker and stronger and were vital to the speed of construction that the Industrial Age demanded. Pointing was executed to a similar standard. As well as giving more protection to the weaker bedding mortar, fine detailing also helped to minimise the visual impact of the joints so that the classical details could be displayed more clearly. The highly skilled craft practice of ‘Tuck’ pointing was the ultimate development in this quest. A more expensive solution was to use Kew Palace, London (1631): one of the earliest known example in England of a whole facade set out and built in Flemish bond (Photo: Rafa Esteve, Wiki) The House Mill (1776) and the Clock Mill to the right (1817) on the River Lea in the London Borough of Newham: fine examples of the use of brick in early industrial architecture